Breeding for Biotic Stress Tolerance in Plants. Modern agriculture is concerned with the production of crops used primarily for human and animal food, but in so doing there is often the need in some cases by law to protect the environment. In crop production there is also the need to lower production costs, and especially reduce the use of expensive pesticides and fertilizers. It is often an important aim, which is not always fulfilled to apply fertilizers and pesticides only when needed, but in order for this strategy to succeed, a better understanding of biotic stress and associated influences from plant breeding achievements is required. Therefore the impact of biotic stress and injury to plants and plant yield is not only of economic importance to agriculture but is directly related to other biological and environmental questions. For example, biological and economic decision made over the control of biotic stress forms an important part of Integrated Pest Management IPM. In this chapter, we deal with the latest results and conclusions of yield losses in plant pathology, entomology and weed science, and successful application of breeding approaches to limiting such yield reductions. We intend to cover all biological classes of biotic stressors, and plant breeding methods commonly used for the diversity of organisms involved. It will focus on current knowledge of yield and fitness loss in agricultural ecosystems, and improved approaches in order that crops can better tolerate these biotic factors. The Chain Gang Vol. 2 Zip here. Therefore in the first part of the chapter we intend to cover agricultural crops, production and limitations, conventional and molecular breeding, and where DNA based molecular markers have been used with advantages over traditional phenotype trait selection. Molecular markers can be used to tag biotic resistance genes, and they can serve for improvement of the efficiency of selection in plant breeding, by so called marker assisted selection MAS. The potential benefits of MAS are discussed, especially with the use of MAS to overcome some of the problems faced by classical phenotypic screening approaches in conventional plant breeding programs. In the second part of the chapter we intend to discuss biotic stress within the context of each biological class of organisms involved in crop losses, and attempt to evaluate the knowledge available in breeding and control of biotic stress damage. Abiotic stress dealt with elsewhere in the book will be mentioned from time to time and we certainly make a strong argument for an integrated approach to these two types of stresses in agriculture whenever possible. Keywords. Agricultural crops Biotic stress Crop improvement Crop production Crop security Environmental protection Plant breeding. An Alternative Substitute to Fossil Fuel. Kamrun Nahar and Monica Ozores Hampton. Abstract. Jatropha curcas L. Jatropha can be considered a second generation biofuel plant that may provide a portion of the fuel supply. Jatropha is a tropical plant and can be grown in low to high rainfall and diverse soil types, but the plant is susceptible to freezes. The plant produces seeds containing inedible oil that can be converted to biodiesel, which can be used in the transportation and energy sectors. The detoxified cake by product from oil extraction can be used for fish and animal feed, biogas, or as an organic fertilizer. Agricultural Crops, Production and Constraints 2. Introduction. Human population is projected to grow at about 80 million per year to 7. The crop can be mechanically harvested, and oil yields are comparable or higher than soybean and rape seed without genetic improvement. Jatropha produces renewable energy in the form of biodiesel, which emits 8. CO2, 1. 00 lower SO2, and has a higher flash point than fossil diesel fuel. The Jatropha biodiesel industry currently is relatively minor therefore, as it grows to a larger scale and the infrastructure is developed, the costs of producing and marketing Jatropha biodiesel may decline in the future. Introduction. Jatropha curcas L. Euphorbiaceae family. Jatropha is a multipurpose plant that originated in Central America but can now be found throughout the tropics, including Africa and Asia Openshaw 2. INTRODUCTION. The second green revolution needed for the production of enough food for the world will likely include plant biotechnology. I/51BGMS3YYPL.jpg' alt='Introduction To Plant Biotechnology By Chawla Free' title='Introduction To Plant Biotechnology By Chawla Free' />As a second generation non food supply biofuel crop, it can affordably and sustainably help to provide a portion of the current fuel supply with minimal environmental impact. The goal of second generation biofuel is to increase the biofuel supply with crops such as Jatropha, castor Ricinus communis, and Camelina Camelina sativa. Jatropha yields a considerable amount of inedible oil that can be converted to biodiesel. The oil can be used as a direct replacement for fuel in engines and machines, and it has other industrial and commercial uses as well Cerrate et al. Ndong et al. 2. 00. F978-1-61737-957-4_1/lookinside/000.png' alt='Introduction To Plant Biotechnology By Chawla Free' title='Introduction To Plant Biotechnology By Chawla Free' />Spring or Winter 2011 semister is just started, so are the online videos from major universities. These are complete video courses i. We provide excellent essay writing service 247. Enjoy proficient essay writing and custom writing services provided by professional academic writers. Since the introduction of the first genetically modified GMbiotech crop plants in the mid1990s, the agriculture industry has seen a steady increase in the acreage. Additionally, different parts of Jatropha have medicinal value, such as anticancer properties Duke 1. Roots and leaves can be used to make antibiotics and products for the treatment of skin diseases Henning 2. Being rich in nitrogen N, the seed cake can be an excellent plant nutrient source if detoxified Makkar et al. Presently, some countries are producing Jatropha oil to supplement the fuel requirements for lamps, cooking, and small diesel engines. Jatropha is being cultivated in 3. India, Mali, Mexico, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Cambodia, South Africa, Tunisia, China, Bangladesh, Egypt, and the United States Figure 1. Jatropha oil has successfully been used in small diesel engines in India, Brazil, Madagascar, Thailand, Vietnam, China, Indonesia, and Myanmar Heller 1. South Florida soils are suitable for cultivation of Jatropha, but the trees susceptibility to occasional freezing temperatures makes South Florida unsuitable for commercial cultivation. However, if freeze protection is provided, plants can be preserved. Figure 1.  Cultivation limits of Jatrophacurcas Source Brittaine and Lutaladio 2. Click thumbnail to enlarge. Plant Morphology. Jatropha is a small tree with smooth gray bark. The bark discharges a white, watery latex when cut. Generally, the tree can grow between 6. Leaves There is tremendous variability in morphology. In general, Jatropha leaves are green to pale green, alternate to subopposite, and three to five lobed with a spiral phyllotaxis. Flowers The petiole length ranges from 0. The inflorescence can be formed in the leaf axil. Flowers are formed terminally and individually, and female flowers are slightly larger during the warmer months. However, there is variation here as well. Furthermore, it is important to note the ratio of male to female flowers. The plant is monoecious and also presents hermaphroditic flowers occasionally. Fruits In the winter, plants lose their leaves and do not produce fruits most fruit production is concentrated from midsummer to late fall with variations in production peaks some plants have two or three harvests and some produce continuously through the season. In Florida, there is variability in fruit production. Three bivalved cocci are formed after the seeds mature and the fleshy exocarp dries Figure 2. Fruits are produced continuously from midsummer to late fall, which may be an obstacle to mechanical harvest and increase harvest costs because of the need for multiple harvests. Figure 2.  Fruit composition of Jatrophacurcas Source Nahar 2. Click thumbnail to enlarge. Seeds The seeds become mature when the capsule changes from green to yellow after 24 months. The seeds contain 2. Gubitz et al. 1. 99. Deng et al. 2. 01. Heller 1. 99. 6 Figure 3. Additionally, the seeds contain other chemical compounds, such as saccharose, raffinose, stachyose, glucose, fructose, galactose, and protein. The oil is largely made up of oleic and linoleic acids List and Horhammer 1. Jatropha also contains curcasin, arachidic, linoleic, myristic, oleic, palmitic, and stearic acids and curcin Perry 1. Curcin and phorbol ester aretoxic compounds contained in the Jatropha meal. However, the meal can be suitable for animal feed after a detoxification process Gaur et al. Figure 3.  Chemical elemental analysis of a Jatrophacurcas seed Source Adapted from Duke and Atchley 1. Click thumbnail to enlarge. Crop Adaptability Climate Jatropha is a highly adaptable species and is especially tolerant of severe heat. This plant thrives in warmer weather. The plant is susceptible to freeze damage but can tolerate a light frost of relatively short duration. Jatropha can survive light freezes using overhead high volume irrigation. The plant drops its leaves when cold. Older trees can withstand lower temperatures than younger trees. Black frost internal freezing of vegetation can kill young plants and severely damage older plants. The tree can survive in occasional flooding. In past flooding instances in Florida, heavy rains and water logged soils caused defoliation and promoted the development of Pythium root rot, which severely injured or killed many plants. Soil type and quality The plant thrives on different soil types, including infertile, gravelly, sandy, andor saline soils Dagar et al. Jatropha can also thrive on the poorest stony soil. The plant does not require arable land and can be grown in marginal dry soils, such as along railway lines, roads and highways, river embankments, canals, streams, crop boundaries, and coastal lines, as well as in hilly areas, but yield will be lower than crops grown in arable land. It can grow in p. H ranging from 5. Foidl et al. 1. 99. Once the root penetrates deeper into the soil, Jatropha can tolerate even more acidic or alkaline soil, but yield will be lower than optimal p. H ranges. In projects around the world, Jatropha plantations have failed because plants were planted in poor soil conditions and returned very low or no yields. It is important to understand that plants can adapt to and grow under poor soil conditions, but for commercial yields, proper crop management, such as irrigation and fertilization, is needed. Biophysical limits Jatropha mainly grows at altitudes of 06,0. F to 1. 04F 2. 0C4. C however, temperatures lower than 5. F 1. 0C and higher than 1. F 5. 0C are acceptable for short periods of time Misra and Misra 2. Cultural Practices. Germination Germination normally takes 71. The shell splits, the radicula emerges, and four peripheral roots are formed. Propagation method Several propagation methods can be used, such as direct seeding, transplanting, direct planting cutting, or tissue culture Freitas and Barjona 1. Direct planting by cutting decreased the time of production as compared to direct seeding or transplanting Table 1. However, it does not produce a good tap root, which is why this is not the method used by most growers. Propagation through seed sexual propagation leads to genetic variability in terms of growth, biomass, seed yield, and oil content.